Plant Adaptations
The extreme conditions in the Arctic Tundra mean that in order to survive, plants have had to make adaptations in the ways they behave and function. There are many ways that these plants have done this.
Examples of Structural adaptations of plants in the Arctic Tundra include:
Small leaves - Having smaller leaves not only reduces the surface area of the leaf over which heat can be lost, but also means that there are less stomatal pores through which the plant can lose its valuable water. Maintaining this water is essential in sustaining life, particularly in the harsh winds of the Arctic Tundra climate. This is not unique to the Tundra and is found in species all around the world in trees, bushes or other plants.
Growing low to the ground - By growing low to the ground, plants are not as vulnerable to the wind. They are also able to grow in clusters this way, shielding one another from external forces, enabling them to maintain warmth in cold conditions. This is not unique to the Tundra and is found in species all around the world, such as bushes and shrubs.
Examples of Physiological adaptations of plants in the Arctic Tundra include:
Quick flower production - Because of the cold temperatures and the short growing seasons, flowering plants have adapted to utilise the 24 hour sun light in the summer in order to produce and bloom flowers quickly. This is not unique to the Tundra but there are plants that flower quickly outside of the Arctic Tundra but perhaps not as quickly.
Extracellular ice formation - Ice formed within a plant cell is often lethal, and so some plants are able to lose some of their internal water to form ice surrounding them. This not only somewhat protects them from other ice, but means that the solutes within the cells are more concentrated and so they have a lower freezing point. This makes the plant much more durable in low temperatures. This is unique to the Tundra and some insects have a similar defence mechanism against the cold.
Examples of Structural adaptations of plants in the Arctic Tundra include:
Small leaves - Having smaller leaves not only reduces the surface area of the leaf over which heat can be lost, but also means that there are less stomatal pores through which the plant can lose its valuable water. Maintaining this water is essential in sustaining life, particularly in the harsh winds of the Arctic Tundra climate. This is not unique to the Tundra and is found in species all around the world in trees, bushes or other plants.
Growing low to the ground - By growing low to the ground, plants are not as vulnerable to the wind. They are also able to grow in clusters this way, shielding one another from external forces, enabling them to maintain warmth in cold conditions. This is not unique to the Tundra and is found in species all around the world, such as bushes and shrubs.
Examples of Physiological adaptations of plants in the Arctic Tundra include:
Quick flower production - Because of the cold temperatures and the short growing seasons, flowering plants have adapted to utilise the 24 hour sun light in the summer in order to produce and bloom flowers quickly. This is not unique to the Tundra but there are plants that flower quickly outside of the Arctic Tundra but perhaps not as quickly.
Extracellular ice formation - Ice formed within a plant cell is often lethal, and so some plants are able to lose some of their internal water to form ice surrounding them. This not only somewhat protects them from other ice, but means that the solutes within the cells are more concentrated and so they have a lower freezing point. This makes the plant much more durable in low temperatures. This is unique to the Tundra and some insects have a similar defence mechanism against the cold.
Animal Adaptations
Although we, as humans, could not survive over a long period in the Arctic Tundra because of its extreme climate, there are thousands of animals and insects that have been able to make structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations that allow them to do so.
Examples of Structural adaptations of animals in the Arctic Tundra include:
Fur - Most animals have thick layers of dense fur that protects them from the cold, as well as providing warmth by trapping solar heat in the hair. This fur is shed during summer to prevent overheating and is thicker during winter to provide the most warmth possible. This is known as molting and is a physiological adaptation. This is not unique to the Tundra and can be found in organisms all around the world living in climates that are cold during some time of the year.
Camouflage - Many animals in the Arctic Tundra have adapted feathers or fur to camouflage them as protection from predators or even to hide them from prey they are hunting. During summer, many animals have a darker shade of feather or fur and in winter their fur is pure white to blend in with the snow. This is not unique to the Tundra and is commonly found in places where there is a lot of predator/prey relationships, such as animals living in a Savanna biome.
Examples of Physiological adaptations of animals in the Arctic Tundra include:
Hibernation - Although hibernation is often thought of as behavioural, it is also in fact a physiological adaptation. Before an animal hibernates, it will consume large amounts of food. This food is then converted to fat and stored. During hibernation, the animal's body temperature will drop and its metabolism will slow down. The stored is then slowly broken down to in order to maintain a tolerable body temperature. Because of the slowed rate of metabolism, an animal is able to hibernate for long periods of time. This is not unique to the Tundra and there are many animals that hibernate during winter around the world, such as bears.
Molting - As afore mentioned, many animals in the Tundra have thick coats of fur that molt at different times of the year to prepare the animal for the coming weather. In winter, coats are thicker and whiter, and after winter, the thicker hair sheds and a darker, shorter coat is left. Common animals such as dogs and cats molt their fur and melting is not at all unique to the Tundra.
Being "Freezing Tolerant" - Some insects are able to survive the harsh conditions by producing a "Unfreezble" liquid within their bodies. This liquid remains liquid within the insect, and the surrounding liquid is frozen. The insect is frozen, but the remaining liquid enables it to sustain life. This is unique to the Tundra, and some plants are capable of a similar defence.
Examples of Structural adaptations of animals in the Arctic Tundra include:
Fur - Most animals have thick layers of dense fur that protects them from the cold, as well as providing warmth by trapping solar heat in the hair. This fur is shed during summer to prevent overheating and is thicker during winter to provide the most warmth possible. This is known as molting and is a physiological adaptation. This is not unique to the Tundra and can be found in organisms all around the world living in climates that are cold during some time of the year.
Camouflage - Many animals in the Arctic Tundra have adapted feathers or fur to camouflage them as protection from predators or even to hide them from prey they are hunting. During summer, many animals have a darker shade of feather or fur and in winter their fur is pure white to blend in with the snow. This is not unique to the Tundra and is commonly found in places where there is a lot of predator/prey relationships, such as animals living in a Savanna biome.
Examples of Physiological adaptations of animals in the Arctic Tundra include:
Hibernation - Although hibernation is often thought of as behavioural, it is also in fact a physiological adaptation. Before an animal hibernates, it will consume large amounts of food. This food is then converted to fat and stored. During hibernation, the animal's body temperature will drop and its metabolism will slow down. The stored is then slowly broken down to in order to maintain a tolerable body temperature. Because of the slowed rate of metabolism, an animal is able to hibernate for long periods of time. This is not unique to the Tundra and there are many animals that hibernate during winter around the world, such as bears.
Molting - As afore mentioned, many animals in the Tundra have thick coats of fur that molt at different times of the year to prepare the animal for the coming weather. In winter, coats are thicker and whiter, and after winter, the thicker hair sheds and a darker, shorter coat is left. Common animals such as dogs and cats molt their fur and melting is not at all unique to the Tundra.
Being "Freezing Tolerant" - Some insects are able to survive the harsh conditions by producing a "Unfreezble" liquid within their bodies. This liquid remains liquid within the insect, and the surrounding liquid is frozen. The insect is frozen, but the remaining liquid enables it to sustain life. This is unique to the Tundra, and some plants are capable of a similar defence.
Behaviours of the Polar Bear
The Polar Bear has developed many behaviours that assist it in its survival in its environment.
Feeding – In order to have any chance of surviving in the Arctic Tundra, the Polar Bear must regularly feed - just like any other organism. Although they feed on whale carcasses, bird eggs and sometimes, though rarely, vegetation or smaller mammals; Polar Bears primarily feed on seals that live on the ice. This means that as seasons change and ice begins to melt, they are forced to follow the ice in pursuit of seals.
To catch these seals, a Polar Bear will find the breathing holes that they have created, and wait there for a seal to rise to the surface for oxygen before attacking. By remaining still, they are conserving their precious energy. A Polar Bear uses 13 times as much energy walking than it does while it remains still. They are also known to ‘stalk’ seals and wait until the seals are sleeping before making for an easy meal.
In the case of a large carcass - such as a whale, there will often be multiple bears there to feed on it. Out of those bears, there will be one male who is in charge of the carcass. The carcass is his, and other bears must beg him to feed on it as well. This is done by approaching the male with a lowered head, slowly circling around the carcass, and finally, touching noses with the male.
Of course, eating, much like sleeping, is an innate, rhythmic behaviour; but there are many other behaviours involved with how the Polar Bear obtains its food. The following of ice for its food is an example of migratory behaviour – this is also innate.
The methods that the Bears use to catch their prey, however, were learned. It is most likely that these behaviours were learned by observing their mothers during the time period they spend together. Classical and operant conditioning are also very likely factors in these learned behaviours.
Having a male in charge of a carcass is an example of a dominance hierarchy, and this is an innate behaviour.
Feeding – In order to have any chance of surviving in the Arctic Tundra, the Polar Bear must regularly feed - just like any other organism. Although they feed on whale carcasses, bird eggs and sometimes, though rarely, vegetation or smaller mammals; Polar Bears primarily feed on seals that live on the ice. This means that as seasons change and ice begins to melt, they are forced to follow the ice in pursuit of seals.
To catch these seals, a Polar Bear will find the breathing holes that they have created, and wait there for a seal to rise to the surface for oxygen before attacking. By remaining still, they are conserving their precious energy. A Polar Bear uses 13 times as much energy walking than it does while it remains still. They are also known to ‘stalk’ seals and wait until the seals are sleeping before making for an easy meal.
In the case of a large carcass - such as a whale, there will often be multiple bears there to feed on it. Out of those bears, there will be one male who is in charge of the carcass. The carcass is his, and other bears must beg him to feed on it as well. This is done by approaching the male with a lowered head, slowly circling around the carcass, and finally, touching noses with the male.
Of course, eating, much like sleeping, is an innate, rhythmic behaviour; but there are many other behaviours involved with how the Polar Bear obtains its food. The following of ice for its food is an example of migratory behaviour – this is also innate.
The methods that the Bears use to catch their prey, however, were learned. It is most likely that these behaviours were learned by observing their mothers during the time period they spend together. Classical and operant conditioning are also very likely factors in these learned behaviours.
Having a male in charge of a carcass is an example of a dominance hierarchy, and this is an innate behaviour.
http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/
Communication – There are many different forms of communication between Polar Bears; including noises and gestures in body language. A Polar Bear cub will make many noises to interact with its mother, and later on uses other noises, gestures and scents to communicate with other Bears. A Polar Bear with a lowered head that is silent, is often being submissive to a dominant male; whereas a Polar bear with a lowered head that is hissing or growling is showing signs of aggression, and may even be looking to challenge a dominant male. When a Polar Bear touches noses with another, it is asking it for something – generally food. A mother will often chuff if she is stressed and concerned for her cub’s safety, and head wagging is a sign of playfulness. These are all ways that Polar Bears communicate with one another.
These communicative behaviours are all innate. These are all social interactions between the Polar Bears, and many of the behaviours are of competitive nature.
Hygiene - In the Arctic Tundra, with the cold temperatures and harsh winds, the fur of the Polar Bears is essential in providing insulation and maintaining the Polar Bear's core temperature. For fur to be effective as an insulator, it must be kept clean and dry. After feeding, Polar Bears will clean themselves off in the ocean, and once they are done, they will shake vigorously and rub themselves in the snow to dry off. During the summer, it's easy for the Bears to find water to clean off in, but during winter there isn't much available water so it is more common for them to clean themselves in the snow. Mother Polar Bears clean their cubs by licking them, and cubs will also lick each other. Ice that forms in their paws is cleaned off to make walking easier.
Polar Bears need to keep themselves clean and dry in order to survive. Even though they are cleaned by their mothers, they know to clean themselves from the moment they are born. This makes their grooming innate, as they clean and dry themselves instinctively. Although this is instinctive, they learn to clean themselves properly through observation and learning from their mothers when they are cubs.
http://www.defendersblog.org/2012/04/and-the-winners-of-the-3rd-annual-photo-contest-are/polar-shaker/
Sleeping - Polar Bears must sleep for 8 hours at a time, and often take naps during the day as well. These naps help the Polar Bear to conserve energy. During warmer months, Polar Bears sleep in the day more often that night, and use night time when seals are more active to hunt. During winter, a Polar Bear will dig a burrow and will sleep in it, with its back facing the wind so that it can keep warmer. During storms and blizzards, Polar Bears are known to sleep under an insulating blanket of snow until the storm passes and these can last for days.
Sleeping is an innate behaviour and Polar Bears are born with the need to sleep and gain energy. The sleeping patterns of the Polar Bear, such as sleeping during the day and hunting at night are most likely learned, from observation of their mother or even operant conditioning through trial and error while hunting through the day.
Hibernation - Although many Bear species hibernate during the winter to conserve their energy while food sources are scarce and climates are not ideal, the Polar Bear does not hibernate. Pregnant Polar Bears will remain in a den for around 3 months at the end of her pregnancy, In this time, she will give birth to her young and live off her stored fat. This is not true hibernation, however, because her body temperature does not drop significantly - warmth is needed for the young during the pregnancy and while giving birth, and afterwards when she must feed her young as well.
Although this isn't true hibernation, it is both a physiological and behavioural adaptation. This makes it an innate behaviour.
It is important that the behaviours of Animals are studied because their behaviours help us to better understand their physiological functions, as well as potential threats to the animals themselves. The study of these behaviours is known as Ethology. Polar Bears, for instance are an important example of animals living in a very delicate climate - the Arctic Tundra, that are continuously becoming more and more vulnerable because of the damage that human activity is inflicting on their habitat. For the Polar Bear, global warming is causing the ice that is crucial to their survival melt, and they are forced to move further and further away from their home during the warmer season. Understanding their behaviours will assist us significantly in protecting them from being further damaged by human activity.
Sleeping is an innate behaviour and Polar Bears are born with the need to sleep and gain energy. The sleeping patterns of the Polar Bear, such as sleeping during the day and hunting at night are most likely learned, from observation of their mother or even operant conditioning through trial and error while hunting through the day.
Hibernation - Although many Bear species hibernate during the winter to conserve their energy while food sources are scarce and climates are not ideal, the Polar Bear does not hibernate. Pregnant Polar Bears will remain in a den for around 3 months at the end of her pregnancy, In this time, she will give birth to her young and live off her stored fat. This is not true hibernation, however, because her body temperature does not drop significantly - warmth is needed for the young during the pregnancy and while giving birth, and afterwards when she must feed her young as well.
Although this isn't true hibernation, it is both a physiological and behavioural adaptation. This makes it an innate behaviour.
It is important that the behaviours of Animals are studied because their behaviours help us to better understand their physiological functions, as well as potential threats to the animals themselves. The study of these behaviours is known as Ethology. Polar Bears, for instance are an important example of animals living in a very delicate climate - the Arctic Tundra, that are continuously becoming more and more vulnerable because of the damage that human activity is inflicting on their habitat. For the Polar Bear, global warming is causing the ice that is crucial to their survival melt, and they are forced to move further and further away from their home during the warmer season. Understanding their behaviours will assist us significantly in protecting them from being further damaged by human activity.
Reproductive Strategies
Plants
Purple Saxifrage
http://www.arcticphoto.co.uk/gallery2/arctic/landscape/vegetation/ba9244-32.htm
Structure - The flowers of the Purple Saxifrage are very small, cup shaped and are brightly coloured - from magenta to violet. The structure of the leaves and stems is known to vary, depending on where the plant is growing and scientists are doing research into why this is so. The flowers are pink or purple and are also scented to attract insects. The flowers are designed with a landing platform for insects to land on, and the nectar is produced and kept in the middle of the flower. This is so that when an insect gets nectar out of the flower, it is covered in pollen as a result. This pollen is carried by the insects to the stigma of other flowers, where the flower's eggs are held. The pollen is carried to the ovary, where is fertilises the flower's eggs. These fertilised eggs then produce seeds.
Once the seeds are produced, the plant converts the flower's energy into producing fruit to encase the seeds. These seeds are indigestible are so are expelled though other organisms' digestive systems.
Once the seeds are produced, the plant converts the flower's energy into producing fruit to encase the seeds. These seeds are indigestible are so are expelled though other organisms' digestive systems.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_oppositifolia_MHNT.BOT.2009.13.38.jpg
Animals
r and K Selections
K-Selection - Polar Bear - The Polar Bear is a K-Selective species. It produces between one and three young, and it invests much of its energy into developing its young in the uterus. The gestation period of a Polar Bear is about 8 months. After birth, the cubs remain with their mother for 30 months. In some cases, they are nursed by their mother for this whole time, while others stop after as little as 18 months. A female Polar Bear will give birth, on average, once every three years. A cub will almost always remain with their mother for the entire 30 months to ensure it has learnt everything it possibly can to allow it to survive in the wild.
K-Selection - Arctic Fox - Although the Arctic Fox is another K-Selective species of the Arctic Tundra, the Arctic Fox produces more offspring than the average K-Selective species and the gestation is fairly short. The average litter is between 5 and 9 pups, but it is also common for there to be much larger litters. The gestation period of an Arctic Fox is only 52 days. After birth, both the mother and the father foxes will raise the pups in order to teach them enough to help their chances of survival on their own.
r-Selection - Arctic Bumble Bee - The Arctic Bumble Bee is one of the few r-selective species in the Arctic Tundra. Like all other bee species, the Arctic Bumble Bees live in colonies with one queen. This queen will lay hundreds and even thousands of eggs during the warmer months, and will collect sperm to fertilise these eggs. The young bees, one hatched will be taken care of by other bees in the colony. Most of the young bees will not survive long enough to reproduce.
There are advantages and disadvantages to both K-Selection and r-Selection in the Arctic Tundra.
The young produced in K-Selection require much more energy and time. Gestation periods are much longer than those of r-Selective species, and the energy needed to make each individual is high. After birth, K-Selected young often remain with their mothers and sometimes fathers, usually until maturity - which comes much later than r-Selected species. Young produced in K-Selection are large and have a long life expectancy. K-Selective animals are also able to reproduce multiple times in their lifetime. However, because so much energy is used to develop and care for offspring, only few offspring can be produced at a time in K-Selection.
In r-Selection, many offspring are produced at once. They are small and require little energy during development. Individuals mature early and in most cases do not require any parental supervision. However, they only have a short life expectancy and very rarely do they outlive that. r-Selected species are only reproduce once in their lifetime, and when they do they produce between tens and thousands of young. Few of the young are expected to survive, but the chances of some of them surviving are greater because of the number that are produced.
Musk Ox
Musk Oxen have a male and female gender system, and they are polygamous. They reproduce sexually, and there is a dominant male within a herd, and he will mate with multiple females within the herd. During the mating season, he becomes extremely aggressive and keep other males from mating with his females. Fertilisation in Musk Oxen is internal, and they give birth to live young. A Musk Ox will give birth to only one young, and the gestation period is eight months. The embryo develops in the mother's womb and its nutrition comes from the food that the mother eats. After birth, calves are nursed for around a year and are cared for by their mother and the herd. If a herd of Musk Oxen feel threatened, they are form a defensive circle their young in the middle to protect them, with their horns facing the threat. Female Musk Oxen are sexually mature at two years of age, and males at five. Musk Oxen have a life expectancy of 20-24 years and they often meet this expectation because of adaptations they have made to survive in the harsh conditions of the Arctic Tundra.
